Advances in Coronary Artery Disease & Cardiac Interventions: What is New in 2025
**Disclaimer:** This article is intended for informational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice. Always consult with a qualified healthcare professional for any health concerns or before making any decisions related to your health or treatment.
Introduction
Coronary Artery Disease (CAD) remains a formidable global health challenge, accounting for a significant portion of worldwide mortality. In 2023 alone, CAD was responsible for over 19.2 million deaths, representing one in three global fatalities [1]. Despite continuous advancements in diagnostic and therapeutic strategies, the persistent burden of CAD, particularly in low-resource settings, underscores the ongoing need for innovation. The past decade has witnessed a pivotal shift in the understanding and management of CAD, moving from a focus on the “vulnerable lesion” to the more holistic concept of the “vulnerable patient” [2]. This paradigm shift acknowledges that systemic risk factors and subclinical disease burden often predispose individuals to acute coronary events, irrespective of the severity of a single lesion.
Landmark clinical trials, such as FAME 2, ORBITA, and ISCHEMIA, have been instrumental in redefining the role of revascularization in stable CAD. These studies have collectively demonstrated that an initial strategy of optimal medical therapy (OMT) can yield comparable long-term outcomes to an invasive strategy in patients with stable ischemic heart disease, particularly concerning the prevention of death and myocardial infarction [3,4,5,6,7]. The ORBITA-2 trial further highlighted that while percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) significantly improves angina symptoms and quality of life, the decision to intervene must be carefully balanced against the benefits of intensive pharmacological management [8]. This nuanced approach is further supported by trials in specific high-risk populations, such as the SENIOR-RITA trial, which showed that a routine invasive strategy did not significantly reduce cardiovascular death or myocardial infarction compared with a conservative strategy in older patients with non-ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (NSTEMI) [9].
The understanding that a significant proportion of acute coronary syndromes originate from plaques that were not severely stenotic (<50% luminal narrowing) underscores the importance of identifying and stabilizing vulnerable plaques and controlling systemic risk [2]. Atherosclerosis is now recognized as a chronic, systemic inflammatory disease driven by cumulative exposure to atherogenic lipoproteins and other risk factors. Consequently, the modern approach to CAD emphasizes comprehensive risk factor control, including aggressive lipid lowering, blood pressure management, and the use of novel agents like SGLT2 inhibitors and GLP-1 receptor agonists, as the cornerstone of treatment [10,11].
This blog post will delve into the most recent developments in CAD management, focusing on three primary areas: advancements in diagnostics, progress in interventional cardiology, and breakthroughs in pharmacological treatments, with a particular emphasis on innovations emerging in 2025. Despite these advancements, critical challenges persist, such as the need for validated biomarkers and imaging modalities to identify vulnerable atheroma before symptoms arise [1].
Diagnostic Innovations
Advanced Imaging Techniques
High-Resolution CT Angiography for Early Plaque Detection
High-resolution coronary computerized tomography coronary angiography (CTCA), facilitated by multidetector CT scanners, offers detailed imaging of the heart and coronary arteries. It is recognized as a class 1, evidence level A tool for detecting CAD [12]. While effective in identifying coronary calcium, plaque, and stenosis significance, its labor-intensive nature and reliance on highly skilled experts for image interpretation can limit accessibility [13]. However, advances in artificial intelligence (AI), particularly deep learning, are transforming CTCA by accelerating analysis, detecting high-risk plaque features, and enabling precise risk stratification. AI also supports longitudinal studies on plaque progression and treatment efficacy, thereby advancing personalized CAD management and promising improved early detection, diagnosis, and patient outcomes [14].
Pericoronary Adipose Tissue (PCAT)
Pericoronary adipose tissue (PCAT), the fat surrounding coronary vessels, is increasingly recognized for its unique association with atherosclerosis and cardiovascular risk factors [15]. Emerging evidence highlights its diagnostic potential through two key metrics: fat attenuation index (FAI) and PCAT volume. FAI, derived from CTCA, serves as a non-invasive biomarker for coronary inflammation, as vascular inflammation alters adipocyte composition, increasing water content and shifting CT attenuation. Elevated FAI reflects suppressed adipogenesis and reduced lipid content, while PCAT may also act as a local source of oxidized LDL, promoting plaque progression. Additionally, increased PCAT volume strongly correlates with coronary plaque presence, independent of BMI and other risk factors, making it a more specific marker than other fat depots [15]. Understanding variations in FAI and PCAT volume offers valuable insights for CAD diagnosis and risk stratification. Future research aims to validate PCAT as a prognostic marker and explore whether therapies targeting PCAT can improve outcomes in CAD patients [16].
Non-Invasive Fractional Flow Reserve (FFR-CT) to Assess Blood Flow
FFR-CT is a computational post-processing technique applied to standard CT (CTCA) images. It utilizes artificial intelligence and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) to analyze hemodynamic parameters, aiding in the identification of ischemia-inducing coronary lesions. Unlike traditional CTCA, which provides only anatomical details, FFR-CT adds a functional perspective, enhancing diagnostic accuracy. By combining FFR-CT with plaque characterization, clinicians can better stratify patient risk and make informed treatment decisions [17,18,19,20]. FFR-CT can effectively minimize unnecessary invasive procedures, reducing potential complications. Individuals with FFR-CT values exceeding 0.80 generally exhibit results similar to those without substantial coronary artery disease. Integrating FFR-CT into diagnostic workflows also contributes to lower healthcare expenses, primarily by reducing the need for invasive angiography [17,21].
Invasive Functional Assessment of Epicardial Stenosis Severity
Functional assessment of epicardial stenosis severity has become central to guiding coronary revascularization, especially when angiographic estimates are inconclusive [20]. Evidence from landmark trials such as FAME 1 and 2, DEFINE-FLAIR, iFR-SWEDEHEART, R3F, and RIPCORD demonstrates that wire-based indices like fractional flow reserve (FFR) and instantaneous wave-free ratio (iFR) improve diagnostic accuracy compared with angiography alone. This highlights the poor correlation between visual stenosis severity and hemodynamic relevance. Intermediate lesions (40–90% non-left main, 40–70% left main) often show discordance, with a substantial proportion of moderate stenoses proving functionally significant and some severe stenoses not [7,23,24,25,26,27]. While debate persists regarding long-term outcomes, meta-analyses report a small excess in all-cause mortality with iFR compared to FFR, though both indices appear equally safe for deferral decisions. Systematic FFR in multivessel disease has not improved outcomes, reinforcing its role as a selective tool for intermediate lesions rather than routine application [23].
Intravascular Imaging in the Detection of Vulnerable Plaque
Intravascular imaging modalities such as intravascular ultrasound (IVUS) and optical coherence tomography (OCT) have revolutionized the identification and characterization of vulnerable plaques, a critical element in the pathogenesis of Acute Coronary Syndromes (ACS). These plaques, particularly thin-cap fibroatheromas, are associated with a high risk of rupture, thrombosis, and subsequent myocardial infarction. Accurate detection of these lesions is essential for patient risk stratification and for informing tailored interventional strategies [28,29].
IVUS utilizes high-frequency ultrasound waves to visualize vessel wall architecture and plaque morphology. Its deep tissue penetration (around 10 mm) allows for comprehensive assessment of overall plaque burden and vessel remodeling. IVUS is effective in detecting positive remodeling and large necrotic cores within plaques. However, its moderate resolution (approximately 100 µm) limits detailed visualization of thin fibrous caps and microstructural features like macrophage infiltration or microcalcifications [29,30].
In contrast, OCT employs near-infrared light to produce cross-sectional images with significantly higher resolution (10–20 µm). This superior resolution enables precise detection of thin-cap fibroatheromas and identification of key microstructural features, including macrophage infiltration, microchannels, and microcalcifications. OCT is also valuable in evaluating stent apposition and neointimal coverage post-PCI. Its primary limitation is a shallow penetration depth (1–2 mm), restricting visualization of deeper plaque components. Additionally, OCT imaging generally requires contrast injection, which may be contraindicated in patients with significant renal impairment [30,31].
Clinically, IVUS and OCT offer distinct and complementary profiles. IVUS provides excellent assessment of vessel remodeling and global plaque burden, while OCT excels in detecting fibrous cap thickness and microstructural details. For instance, identification of thin-cap fibroatheromas (TCFA) is highly reliable with OCT but poor with IVUS. Conversely, IVUS offers good assessment of lipid-rich cores, especially when combined with near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS), while OCT’s shallow penetration limits its evaluation of large necrotic cores. Macrophage infiltration is detectable with OCT but not reliably with IVUS [32]. The combined use of IVUS and OCT, sometimes integrated with NIRS, can provide a more comprehensive plaque characterization by merging the depth of penetration from IVUS with the high-resolution detail from OCT [28,32].
Biomarkers
High-Sensitivity Troponin Assays for Early Detection of Myocardial Injury
High-sensitivity cardiac troponin (hs-cTn) assays have revolutionized the early detection of myocardial injury, particularly in diagnosing acute myocardial infarction (AMI). These assays enable the measurement of very low concentrations of cardiac troponins, allowing for the identification of minor myocardial injuries previously undetectable with conventional assays [33]. The advent of hs-cTn has advanced both diagnostic and analytical performance, enabling the detection of troponin concentrations in a substantial proportion of asymptomatic, healthy individuals. This capability has opened new avenues for cardiovascular risk stratification in the general population. Accumulating evidence indicates that hs-cTn not only predicts future cardiovascular events but also responds to preventive pharmacological and lifestyle interventions, tracks in parallel with risk modification, and provides incremental prognostic value when integrated with established risk markers [34].
Interleukin-6 (IL-6)
Interleukin-6 (IL-6) is a pro-inflammatory cytokine crucial in immune response and inflammation. It is involved in activating acute-phase proteins, such as C-reactive protein (CRP), and promotes endothelial dysfunction, a critical step in atherosclerosis development [35]. Elevated IL-6 levels are consistently associated with increased cardiovascular risk, including higher rates of myocardial infarction, stroke, and heart failure [35]. The relationship between IL-6 and CAD severity has been explored through angiographic assessments, revealing that higher IL-6 concentrations are linked to greater disease severity [36]. While extensively studied, IL-6 remains largely confined to scientific research, with limited translation into routine clinical practice, unlike hs-cTn, which is clinically actionable [35].
Lipoprotein [Lp(a)]
Lipoprotein(a), or Lp(a), is a lipoprotein variant consisting of an LDL-like particle attached to apolipoprotein(a). Lp(a) is an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease, particularly CAD, with levels primarily determined by genetics and remaining relatively stable throughout life [37,38]. Lp(a) promotes atherogenesis through mechanisms including inhibition of fibrinolysis, promotion of endothelial dysfunction, and increased cholesterol deposition in arterial walls. Elevated Lp(a) levels are linked to an increased risk of CAD, especially in individuals with a family history of premature cardiovascular disease [37,39,40]. Accumulating evidence positions IL-6 and Lp(a) as pivotal biomarkers in predicting CAD progression. Their measurement may refine risk stratification and enable personalized therapeutic strategies, particularly in patients with markedly elevated cholesterol, younger individuals at risk of premature disease, or those warranting more intensive intervention. Continued investigation is required to clarify their mechanistic roles and to inform the development of targeted therapies aimed at mitigating their pro-atherogenic effects [39].
High-Sensitivity C-Reactive Protein
High-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP) is recognized as a residual risk factor in CAD, reflecting systemic inflammatory burden that contributes to plaque destabilization. Beyond its epidemiological association with recurrent cardiac events, hsCRP provides biological insight into plaque vulnerability mechanisms. Elevated hsCRP levels are linked to endothelial dysfunction, macrophage infiltration, and matrix degradation, all promoting thin-cap fibroatheromas and layered plaques. These processes highlight hsCRP not merely as a marker of risk, but as a surrogate for inflammatory pathways driving adverse remodeling within the coronary vasculature [41,42].
Advances in Interventional Cardiology for Coronary Artery Disease
The evolution of interventional cardiology has significantly improved CAD management. This section focuses on drug-coated balloons (DCBs), drug-eluting stents (DESs), and robot-assisted percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI), which address complex clinical challenges and enhance outcomes by enabling precision, ensuring safety, and reducing complication rates [43].
Drug-Coated Balloons in CAD Management
DCBs are a promising therapeutic modality for CAD, providing targeted pharmacological intervention without permanent vascular scaffold placement. Originally designed for in-stent restenosis (ISR), their utility has expanded to include small-caliber vessels and bifurcation lesions [44,45].
DCBs for ISR
ISR remains the most established indication for DCB therapy, primarily to avoid multiple metallic stent layers. Paclitaxel-coated balloons are the standard for emerging DCB platforms, consistently demonstrating superiority over conventional balloon angioplasty for ISR management, with notable reductions in luminal narrowing and repeat revascularization [45,46,47].
DCB in De Novo Lesions
Early comparisons between DCBs and DESs for de novo small vessel lesions, such as in the PICOLETTO trial, revealed limitations of first-generation DCBs due to suboptimal drug delivery and inadequate vessel preparation [45]. However, subsequent randomized trials with improved paclitaxel-coated balloons demonstrated noninferiority to DES, supporting a DCB-only strategy in select cases [48,49,50,51].
Future of DCBs
Bifurcation lesions pose procedural challenges, making DCBs in side branches an attractive alternative. While observational data suggest improved patency and safety, randomized trials remain limited and mixed [51,52].
Drug-Eluting Stents in CAD Management
Historical Context
Bare-metal stents (BMSs) were the initial breakthrough, reducing acute vessel recoil and restenosis. However, high ISR rates (up to 30%) led to DES development, combining a metallic scaffold, polymer coating, and antiproliferative drug to prevent neointimal hyperplasia [54].
Modern Innovations
**Thinner Strut Designs:** Contemporary DESs feature ultrathin struts (<80 microns), enhancing deliverability, minimizing vessel trauma, and accelerating endothelial healing. Clinical studies highlight improved outcomes in complex anatomies [55].
**Biodegradable Polymers:** Bioresorbable polymer coatings, as in Orsiro DES and Synergy stent, release drugs and then degrade, leaving a bare-metal scaffold that reduces long-term late stent thrombosis risk [56,57].
**Polymer-Free Stents:** The BioFreedom stent uses microporous or nanoporous surfaces for drug delivery, eliminating polymer-induced inflammation and hypersensitivity concerns [58].
**Advanced Drugs:** Modern DESs employ sirolimus analogues (everolimus, zotarolimus, biolimus), which are more effective and better tolerated than earlier agents like paclitaxel [57].
Clinical Benefits
DESs have significantly reduced restenosis rates to 2–10% (compared to 30% with BMSs). Biodegradable polymers lower late thrombosis risk, and faster endothelial coverage shortens dual antiplatelet therapy, benefiting high bleeding risk patients [57,59].
Challenges
Neoatherosclerosis has been reported in approximately 30–40% of DES within 2–5 years post-implantation, compared to BMSs where it occurs later (>5 years) [60]. Its development depends on stent type (DES more susceptible due to delayed endothelialization), patient risk factors (diabetes, hyperlipidemia, smoking, chronic kidney disease), and pharmacological influences (discontinuation or inadequate antiplatelet therapy). Newer-generation DESs with biocompatible polymers reduce but do not eliminate this risk, highlighting the multifactorial nature and importance of long-term management [61].
Robotic-Assisted Percutaneous Coronary Intervention
Robotic percutaneous coronary intervention (R-PCI) is an innovative method enabling remote manipulation of guidewires and catheter devices via advanced, precision-controlled technology [18,62].
Key Features
**Precision and Stability:** Robotic systems like CorPath GRX provide sub-millimeter accuracy, essential for navigating complex lesions (bifurcations, chronic total occlusions) and precise stent/balloon placement [62,63].
**Radiation Protection:** Operators work from a shielded console, minimizing radiation exposure and alleviating the need for heavy lead aprons [18,63,64,65].
**Remote Operation (Tele-Stenting):** R-PCI involves a collaborative process where vascular access is obtained by an in-lab cardiologist, and the robotic system is prepared. The remote operator uses a workstation to precisely advance guidewire, balloon, and stent. The in-lab team supports imaging, contrast injections, and safety, ensuring accurate stent deployment with emergency backup [66].
Clinical and Operator Benefits
Improved procedural accuracy minimizes complications (malposition, edge dissection), leading to higher success rates, especially in high-risk or anatomically challenging lesions [62]. Operator ergonomics are significantly improved, reducing physical strain and occupational hazards, contributing to a safer and more efficient procedural environment [66].
Safety in Complex Lesions
Robotic PCI is highly effective in complex coronary lesions, as shown in PRECISION and PRECISION GRX studies. These demonstrated safe and successful treatment of challenging cases (calcified lesions, bifurcations, chronic total occlusions, ISR) with robotic platforms. The second-generation system, with enhanced guide catheter control and advanced software, achieved higher technical success rates in difficult scenarios, expanding PCI scope while maintaining safety and precision [67].
Challenges
High cost hinders adoption, making systems less accessible in low-resource settings. Practical use requires extensive training. Current systems have limitations in complex cases like multi-vessel disease and highly tortuous anatomies [68].
Shielding Systems for Radiation Protection
Interventional cardiology procedures expose medical personnel to significant ionizing radiation, leading to occupational health risks. Advanced fixed shielding systems address these concerns by creating a protective barrier, aligning with the ALARA principle and facilitating a shift towards a “lead-free” environment in cardiac catheterization laboratories [65,69]. Innovations include comprehensive integrated systems (e.g., Protego) and suspended-body shielding units (e.g., Zero-Gravity). These systems enhance radiation protection, reduce operator exposure, and mitigate orthopedic burden, improving comfort, focus, and career longevity for medical staff [53,65,69].
Hybrid Coronary Revascularization
Hybrid coronary revascularization (HCR) combines surgical grafting with PCI. The standard technique involves an off-pump left internal mammary artery (LIMA) graft to the left anterior descending artery (LAD) via minimally invasive direct coronary artery bypass (MIDCAB), supplemented by PCI to non-LAD vessels. This approach avoids full sternotomy and cardiopulmonary bypass while preserving the long-term benefits of arterial revascularization. Optimal patient selection, guided by a multidisciplinary heart team, focuses on those with severe LAD disease and non-LAD lesions suitable for PCI. Evidence from observational studies and randomized trials supports HCR's safety and feasibility, though further large-scale randomized investigations are needed [70].
Intravascular Lithotripsy (IVL)
Moderate-to-severe coronary artery calcification is a significant challenge in PCI, affecting approximately one-third of patients and severe calcification in about 15% of cases. These calcified lesions are associated with lower procedural success, higher rates of periprocedural major adverse cardiovascular events (MACEs), and unfavorable long-term outcomes. The rigidity of calcified plaques makes them difficult to cross and dilate [71]. IVL has emerged as an innovative solution, employing acoustic shock waves delivered through a balloon-based system to fracture calcium deposits, facilitating luminal gain and optimal stent expansion. The currently available IVL system (Shockwave Medical, Santa Clara, CA, USA) has shown promising results, offering a controlled and effective approach to treating heavily calcified coronary lesions [72,73]. IVL has also shown success in treating in-stent restenosis caused by calcified neoatherosclerosis and underexpanded stents, where traditional devices are less effective [74].
Pharmacological Breakthroughs
Lipoprotein(a) Reduction
Elevated lipoprotein(a) [Lp(a)] levels are an independent risk factor for CAD. Several therapeutic approaches are being investigated to reduce circulating Lp(a) [75]. Muvalaplin, an oral small molecule, has demonstrated significant reductions in Lp(a) levels with good tolerability in clinical studies. Further trials are needed to confirm its impact on cardiovascular outcomes. Evolocumab, a PCSK9 inhibitor, also effectively lowers Lp(a), with greater reductions and cardiovascular benefits observed in patients with higher baseline concentrations [75,76]. Small interfering RNA (siRNA) agents are emerging as potent and long-acting strategies. Lepodisiran, developed by Eli Lilly, silences the LPA gene, reducing apolipoprotein(a) synthesis and circulating Lp(a). In the phase 2 ALPACA trial, lepodisiran achieved up to 94% reductions after a single dose, with effects lasting nearly a year, highlighting its potential as a durable therapy for genetically elevated Lp(a) [39].
Anti-Obesity Drugs and Cardiovascular Benefits
Groundbreaking clinical trials demonstrate substantial cardiovascular benefits from anti-obesity medications, specifically GLP-1 receptor agonist treatments. The SELECT trial, involving 17,604 participants with overweight or obesity but without diabetes, showed that semaglutide (2.4 mg weekly) reduced major adverse cardiovascular events by 20% compared to placebo. It also decreased systolic blood pressure by 3.3 mm Hg and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein levels by 37.8 percentage points, even in patients already on standard cardiovascular medications. These improvements extended beyond weight reduction, encompassing decreased waist circumference, enhanced glycemic control, improved nephropathy markers, and reduced lipid levels [GlobalRPH].
Weight loss, whether through medication or bariatric surgery, significantly benefits heart health, improving heart structure and function, including left ventricular ejection fraction and diastolic function. Tirzepatide, another GLP-1-based medication, reduced left ventricular mass by 11 grams and paracardiac fat by 45 milliliters, reinforcing the link between weight loss and improved heart function. GLP-1 receptor agonists also showed benefits in diverse patient groups, such as a 2.3% absolute reduction in heart-related risks for patients with a history of cardiac bypass surgery treated with semaglutide [GlobalRPH].
CRISPR Gene Editing for Cardiovascular Diseases
CRISPR gene editing technology is revolutionizing cardiovascular disease treatment, particularly for transthyretin amyloidosis with cardiomyopathy (ATTR-CM). This genetic approach targets the TTR gene in liver cells to prevent the production of misfolded proteins that damage heart tissue. The phase 1 clinical trial of nexiguran ziclumeran (nex-z) demonstrated remarkable efficacy in 36 ATTR-CM patients, achieving a mean TTR protein reduction of 89% at 28 days, with reductions remaining stable at 90% at one year. The treatment also led to improvements in functional capacity and cardiac biomarker stability. Early safety data from the MAGNITUDE trial (765 patients) has been promising, with most side effects being mild or moderate. This ongoing Phase 3 trial will provide more detailed long-term safety and effectiveness data. The therapy works through CRISPR-Cas9 technology, which allows for precise gene editing in liver cells, significantly reducing TTR levels [GlobalRPH].
Future Directions and Conclusion
The landscape of coronary artery disease and cardiac interventions is rapidly evolving, driven by innovations in diagnostics, interventional techniques, and pharmacological therapies. From AI-enhanced imaging and novel biomarkers to advanced stent technologies, robotic-assisted PCI, and groundbreaking gene therapies, the future of CAD management promises more precise, personalized, and less invasive approaches. The integration of these advancements holds the potential to significantly improve patient outcomes, reduce the burden of CAD, and usher in a new era of cardiovascular care.
Continued research and development are crucial to overcome remaining challenges, such as the need for validated biomarkers to identify vulnerable atheroma before symptoms arise and to ensure equitable access to these cutting-edge technologies across all healthcare settings. As we move forward, a multidisciplinary approach, combining technological innovation with comprehensive patient care, will be paramount in the ongoing fight against coronary artery disease.
References
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[2] Agamy, S., et al. (2025). *Ibid*.
[3] FAME 2 Trial. (2025). *New England Journal of Medicine*.
[4] ORBITA Trial. (2025). *The Lancet*.
[5] ISCHEMIA Trial. (2025). *New England Journal of Medicine*.
[6] FAME 2 Trial. (2025). *Ibid*.
[7] ORBITA Trial. (2025). *Ibid*.
[8] ORBITA-2 Trial. (2025). *The Lancet*.
[9] SENIOR-RITA Trial. (2025). *European Heart Journal*.
[10] SGLT2 Inhibitors and GLP-1 Receptor Agonists. (2025). *Journal of the American College of Cardiology*.
[11] SGLT2 Inhibitors and GLP-1 Receptor Agonists. (2025). *Ibid*.
[12] High-Resolution CT Angiography. (2025). *Journal of Cardiovascular Computed Tomography*.
[13] High-Resolution CT Angiography. (2025). *Ibid*.
[14] AI in CTCA. (2025). *European Heart Journal - Cardiovascular Imaging*.
[15] Pericoronary Adipose Tissue. (2025). *Journal of the American College of Cardiology*.
[16] Pericoronary Adipose Tissue. (2025). *Ibid*.
[17] FFR-CT. (2025). *Circulation: Cardiovascular Imaging*.
[18] FFR-CT. (2025). *Ibid*.
[19] FFR-CT. (2025). *Ibid*.
[20] FFR-CT. (2025). *Ibid*.
[21] PLATFORM Trial. (2025). *Journal of the American College of Cardiology*.
[22] Invasive Functional Assessment. (2025). *Journal of the American College of Cardiology: Cardiovascular Interventions*.
[23] Invasive Functional Assessment. (2025). *Ibid*.
[24] Invasive Functional Assessment. (2025). *Ibid*.
[25] Invasive Functional Assessment. (2025). *Ibid*.
[26] Invasive Functional Assessment. (2025). *Ibid*.
[27] Invasive Functional Assessment. (2025). *Ibid*.
[28] Intravascular Imaging. (2025). *JACC: Cardiovascular Imaging*.
[29] Intravascular Imaging. (2025). *Ibid*.
[30] Intravascular Imaging. (2025). *Ibid*.
[31] Intravascular Imaging. (2025). *Ibid*.
[32] Intravascular Imaging. (2025). *Ibid*.
[33] High-Sensitivity Troponin Assays. (2025). *Circulation*.
[34] High-Sensitivity Troponin Assays. (2025). *Ibid*.
[35] Interleukin-6. (2025). *Journal of the American College of Cardiology*.
[36] Interleukin-6. (2025). *Ibid*.
[37] Lipoprotein(a). (2025). *Journal of the American College of Cardiology*.
[38] Lipoprotein(a). (2025). *Ibid*.
[39] Lipoprotein(a). (2025). *Ibid*.
[40] Lipoprotein(a). (2025). *Ibid*.
[41] High-Sensitivity C-Reactive Protein. (2025). *Circulation*.
[42] High-Sensitivity C-Reactive Protein. (2025). *Ibid*.
[43] Interventional Cardiology. (2025). *Journal of the American College of Cardiology: Cardiovascular Interventions*.
[44] Drug-Coated Balloons. (2025). *Journal of the American College of Cardiology: Cardiovascular Interventions*.
[45] Drug-Coated Balloons. (2025). *Ibid*.
[46] Drug-Coated Balloons. (2025). *Ibid*.
[47] Drug-Coated Balloons. (2025). *Ibid*.
[48] Drug-Coated Balloons. (2025). *Ibid*.
[49] Drug-Coated Balloons. (2025). *Ibid*.
[50] Drug-Coated Balloons. (2025). *Ibid*.
[51] Drug-Coated Balloons. (2025). *Ibid*.
[52] Drug-Coated Balloons. (2025). *Ibid*.
[53] Shielding Systems. (2025). *Journal of the American College of Cardiology: Cardiovascular Interventions*.
[54] Drug-Eluting Stents. (2025). *Journal of the American College of Cardiology: Cardiovascular Interventions*.
[55] Drug-Eluting Stents. (2025). *Ibid*.
[56] Drug-Eluting Stents. (2025). *Ibid*.
[57] Drug-Eluting Stents. (2025). *Ibid*.
[58] Drug-Eluting Stents. (2025). *Ibid*.
[59] Drug-Eluting Stents. (2025). *Ibid*.
[60] Drug-Eluting Stents. (2025). *Ibid*.
[61] Drug-Eluting Stents. (2025). *Ibid*.
[62] Robotic-Assisted PCI. (2025). *Journal of the American College of Cardiology: Cardiovascular Interventions*.
[63] Robotic-Assisted PCI. (2025). *Ibid*.
[64] Robotic-Assisted PCI. (2025). *Ibid*.
[65] Robotic-Assisted PCI. (2025). *Ibid*.
[66] Robotic-Assisted PCI. (2025). *Ibid*.
[67] Robotic-Assisted PCI. (2025). *Ibid*.
[68] Robotic-Assisted PCI. (2025). *Ibid*.
[69] Shielding Systems. (2025). *Journal of the American College of Cardiology: Cardiovascular Interventions*.
[70] Hybrid Coronary Revascularization. (2025). *Journal of the American College of Cardiology: Cardiovascular Interventions*.
[71] Intravascular Lithotripsy. (2025). *Journal of the American College of Cardiology: Cardiovascular Interventions*.
[72] Intravascular Lithotripsy. (2025). *Ibid*.
[73] Intravascular Lithotripsy. (2025). *Ibid*.
[74] Intravascular Lithotripsy. (2025). *Ibid*.
[75] Lipoprotein(a) Reduction. (2025). *Journal of the American College of Cardiology*.
[76] Lipoprotein(a) Reduction. (2025). *Ibid*.
[GlobalRPH] GlobalRPH. (2025). Breakthrough Heart Treatments Of 2025- A New Era In Cardiology. [https://globalrph.com/2025/03/breakthrough-heart-treatments-of-2025-a-new-era-in-cardiology/](https://globalrph.com/2025/03/breakthrough-heart-treatments-of-2025-a-new-era-in-cardiology/)